B.R. Nahata Smriti Sansthan Agricultural Extension Journal (AEXTJ)

Typology of Processed Tea (Camellia sinensis [L.] O. Kuntze): A Review

Joseph Kimutai Langat — 2024-12-15

Tea typology is the science of classifying tea. The main objective of this study carried out between November 2023 and August 2024, was to investigate and compare the typological classification nomenclature of processed tea worldwide. The study utilized a paper review methodology to analyze existing literature and research on tea typology, processing methods, and global classification systems. While the Asian tea-producing countries categorize tea products based on the decreasing oxidation levels during the manufacturing process, namely, Black, green, oolong, and instant teas, Kenya’s tea typology system is based on the degree of the fermentation process, that is, black tea, purple tea, green tea, and white tea. Tea is also classified into five categories: Black, green, white, oolong, and pu-erh or dark teas. The most common typology is by oxidation, and more specifically, by the production methods within the oxidation categories. The main tea processed and exported in Kenya is black tea, a brand that makes up approximately 80% of all teas consumed globally. Manufacturing of black tea is done by withering, rolling, or by use of a cutting-tearing-curling method that ensures efficient conversion of leaf herbage to make tea, which is oxidized and dried before sorting into different grades. This study concluded that tea typology nomenclature differs from country to country, region to region, and classification of this popular thirst-quenching beverage mainly based on the plant origin, historical background, region where tea is (was) grown, scientific system, market niche, economic reasons, cultural beliefs, fermentation, education, and oxidation levels. To achieve coherence in the tea sector, it is recommended that a global tea regulator be established to standardize tea typology.

Multidimensional Poverty Status Correlates of Rural Households in Kaduna State of Nigeria

Mohammed Sanusi Sadiq — 2024-12-15

After the work of Alkire on multidimensional poverty (MP), literature exhibit a paradigm shift in the methodological approach of investigating poverty in the society. A shift from only income- economic approach to a social approach that encapsulates a wider livelihood dimensions- education, health, and standard of living has taken a lead in the literature of poverty. Consequently, in view of this methodological gap in the study area, this research on MP status of rural households was undertaken to serve as one-stop solution to the engine growth of rural economy. Using a multi-stage sampling technique, a total of 120 households is selected and information elicitation was done by the use of well-structured questionnaire complemented with interview schedule in the year 2022. Besides, the collected information was synthesized with the aid of both descriptive and inferential statistics. Empirically, the study area is populated by an economic viable and healthy labor force, literate, agrarian, and technologically exposed, globally integrated and had a viable social capital pool. However, the rural population is characterized by a vulnerable household size, credit paucity, gender stereotype, and cultivation of uneconomic holdings. Furthermore, MP is riffed in the study area and the rural populace suffered deprivation in at least two dimensions. Besides, vulnerability to poverty owes unsustainable large household size and lackluster toward livelihood enhancement innovative measures. Moreover, an advisory service is the major driving force that regulates the intensity of MP intensity in the study area. Nevertheless, self-help, social, religious, and medical measures were the poverty coping strategies adopted in the study area. Therefore, the study calls for gender mainstreaming so as to arrest poverty vicious cycle among the women folk; and, provision of augmenting assets to enable these rural poor overcome distress sale that owes to uneconomic scale of operation.

Suggesting a Prescriptive Model for Online Agricultural Education

L. Mohammed Ghouse — 2024-12-15

Online education became mandatory for all institutions throughout the country during the pandemic situation. Higher Educational Institutes adopted this for the completion of degree programs. Agriculture is one of the most professional degrees which require more practical exposure. It is not known whether the online education provided by the State Agricultural Universities (SAUs) in the COVID-19 pandemic was effective or not from the student and teacher perspectives. Previous studies investigated student perception, acceptability and challenges of online education. So far, the prescriptive model has not been suggested in the agriculture stream, considering both students and teachers. At this point, it is need of the hour to prescribe the effective model for online education from both student and teacher perspectives. This model will rectify the errors and correct it in future. A prescriptive model has been suggested for promoting online agricultural education by SAUs in future. This model includes suggestions to government/policy makers, suggestions to institution and suggestions to students.

Evaluating the Long-Term Consequences of Fertilizers, Pesticides, and Insecticides on Soil Quality and Crop Sustainability: Addressing Soil Health amid Agrochemical Dependency

Bharat Chouhan, Azaruddin Shaikh, Sunita Sonartiya, Amreen Khan — 2024-12-15

Background: The widespread use of fertilizers, pesticides, and insecticides has significantly boosted agricultural productivity but raised concerns about its long-term effects on soil health and crop sustainability. This study aims to evaluate the impact of agrochemical dependency on soil quality, focusing on nutrient balance, microbial diversity, and crop productivity. Materials and Methods: Soil samples were collected from agricultural fields subjected to varying levels of agrochemical usage, including high-input, low-input, and organic farming practices. Soil parameters such as pH, organic matter content, nutrient levels (N, P, K), and microbial diversity were analyzed using standard laboratory methods. Crop yield data were also recorded to correlate soil health with productivity. Results: The findings revealed that high-input agrochemical usage resulted in soil acidification, nutrient imbalance, and a decline in beneficial microbial populations. Conversely, organic farming practices maintained higher levels of soil organic matter, improved microbial diversity, and supported balanced nutrient cycling. Moderate agrochemical use showed intermediate effects, suggesting a threshold for sustainable application. Crop yields were initially higher in high-input systems but declined over time due to soil degradation, while organic systems demonstrated stable long-term productivity. Conclusion: Excessive reliance on agrochemicals degrades soil quality and threatens sustainable agriculture. Adopting integrated soil fertility management practices and reducing agrochemical dependency can mitigate these impacts while ensuring crop sustainability.

The Role of Air Pollution on Climate Change: Myths and Realities

S. Jeevananda Reddy — 2024-12-15

After industrialization with high growth in population and associated new lifestyles, air pollution levels have gone up steeply and became a major health hazard activity, which, in turn, doubled the pollution levels with the drug manufacturing industries and corporate hospitals. The major air pollution causing activities are industrialization, transportation, and agriculture. In addition, air pollution is created by burning of agriculture waste, domestic waste, wood for cooking, forest fires, etc. Air pollution is also modifying the climate in diverse ways. One important component is urban-heat-island effect in summer and in winter warming. To account urban warming effect, met network is well covered in urban areas. To account cooling effect in rural areas, met network is not well covered. Same is the case with the oceans/seas that cover two-thirds of the globe. Since 2000–2024 presented a steep rise in temperature which is the result of satellite measurements in place of surface based met stations. Furthermore, several cold related issues were not taken into account in the mean average temperature. Indian Minimum temperature presented 0.011°C/year during 1880–2020. However, maximum temperature presented a depression in the central part of temperature time series. Similar pattern with less intensive is seen in mean temperature. Reports suggested that global warming is making extreme downpours in Spain. It is reported that global warming made Spain’s rainfall about 12% heavier and doubled the likelihood. Reports suggest that Emissions for fertilizers occur not during their production, but during their use; soil treated with manure or compost fertilizer stores more carbon than soil treated with chemical fertilizers or no fertilizer; greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from organic farming measured as carbon dioxide equivalents (CO2 eq.) and amounted to 1603 kg CO2 eq., while the chemical fertilizers based conventional system was responsible for 1893 kg CO2 eq. If this is controlled that proportionately GHGs could be brought-down without any modification in technology and with modification with the technology, this percentage can reach as high as 50%.